24
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
Introducing Argumentation and Rhetoric
We will examine argumentation in its classical sense—as the study of effective reasoning. This introductory lecture will relate argumentation to the field of rhetoric and consider how argumentation is ethical. With a clear understanding of basic terms, we will preview the directions we will take in the course.
1.
Introducing Argumentation and Rhetoric
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13.
Reasoning from Parts to Whole
The next six lectures focus on inferences, the most complex parts of an argument, and how they determine the argument scheme to be used. Six common inference patterns will be reviewed. This lecture considers inferences from example, which are used to relate specific cases to general claims and to apply general statements to specific cases. The lecture will also identify common errors.
13.
Reasoning from Parts to Whole
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2.
Underlying Assumptions of Argumentation
Argumentation is a means of decision-making, and there are several assumptions that we make when we use it. This lecture will focus on five key assumptions.
2.
Underlying Assumptions of Argumentation
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14.
Reasoning with Comparisons
A common form of inference is that like things should be treated alike. This is reasoning from analogy. This lecture describes types of analogies and tests for this reasoning with comparisons. It will consider why logicians often consider analogy the weakest type of inference, while rhetoricians often consider it the strongest. We will address two uses of the argument from analogy: the judicial analogy and the argument a fortiori, sometimes called a "super-analogy."
14.
Reasoning with Comparisons
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3.
Formal and Informal Argumentation
This lecture will review the defining features of deduction and induction and will summarize three major forms of deductive reasoning: categorical, conditional, and disjunctive. The lecture will conclude by emphasizing why informal reasoning is involved in contemporary study of argumentation.
3.
Formal and Informal Argumentation
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15.
Establishing Correlations
The focus of this lecture is on inferences from sign. Sign inferences establish the relationship between two factors so one can be predicted from knowledge of the other. Sign arguments are used to infer the unknown from the known, to predict outcomes, and to rely on the judgment of expert authorities. The lecture concludes with pitfalls to avoid in making sign inferences.
15.
Establishing Correlations
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4.
History of Argumentation Studies
The study of informal argumentation can be traced to the beginnings of rhetoric in ancient Greece. During the Renaissance, the subject matter of rhetoric was divided, with argumentation assigned to philosophy. Formal logic was held to be the highest form of reasoning, and argumentation tried to imitate it. Since the mid-20th century, theorists have identified weaknesses in the formal-logic model and have revitalized the study of argumentation.
4.
History of Argumentation Studies
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16.
Moving from Cause to Effect
Causal inferences assert that one factor has influence over another. Influence must be inferred because it cannot be observed. The lecture will consider meanings of the concept of causation, purposes for which causal arguments are used, and methods that have been used to infer the existence of causal influence. The lecture will conclude by discussing factors that can undermine a causal inference.
16.
Moving from Cause to Effect
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5.
Argument Analysis and Diagramming
This lecture examines how controversies begin and how the process of arguing produces individual arguments. It will consider the claim as the most basic part of the argument and identify types of claims. Then it will present the structure of an argument: a claim, evidence for it, an inference linking the evidence to the claim, and a warrant justifying that inference.
5.
Argument Analysis and Diagramming
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17.
Commonplaces and Arguments from Form
This lecture considers inferences based on social knowledge and inferences that resemble deductions but are not. Commonplaces are beliefs or judgments that an audience generally accepts as being true. Often these come in pairs of seemingly opposed terms with each term sometimes being preferred. Dilemmas, arguments from hypothesis, and arguments from probabilities are examples of inferences that are not deductive but gain their power from a form that resembles deduction.
17.
Commonplaces and Arguments from Form
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6.
Complex Structures of Argument
The diagram presented in Lecture 5 will help us understand a simple argument structure, but most arguments are embedded in complex structures. A claim in one part of the argument may be evidence in another, and subsidiary claims are joined to support a main claim or resolution. Mapping and analyzing these structures offers considerable advantages, and these will be reviewed.
6.
Complex Structures of Argument
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18.
Hybrid Patterns of Inference
This lecture will examine three hybrid patterns: reasoning with rules, reasoning about values, and dissociation.
18.
Hybrid Patterns of Inference
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7.
Case Construction—Requirements and Options
The complex structure of argument discussed in Lecture 6 can be termed a case: the pattern of arguments used to support a claim. In assembling a case, arguers must be sure to address all the issues raised by the claim in the particular situation. Addressing the issues will satisfy an initial burden of proof. In meeting these requirements, arguers have choices about what arguments to use and how to arrange them.
7.
Case Construction—Requirements and Options
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19.
Validity and Fallacies I
The central question of this and the next lecture is: What makes a good argument? The answer is validity. In formal reasoning, validity is a matter of structure unrelated to content. In informal reasoning, it means following patterns that have led to good results and avoided fallacies. This lecture examines errors specific to each pattern of inference, and then considers errors of vacuity ("empty" arguments).
19.
Validity and Fallacies I
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8.
Stasis—The Heart of the Controversy
Stasis refers to the focal point of dispute, the point at which contending positions meet. It is determined by the choices that advocates make about what to stipulate and what to contest. The first decision to be made in responding to a case is what the point of stasis will be. This lecture will illustrate the concept, which is drawn from ancient theories of rhetoric. Finally, using the concept of stasis will be shown as useful for both the arguer and the analyst of argument.
8.
Stasis—The Heart of the Controversy
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20.
Validity and Fallacies II
This lecture continues the discussion of general errors in reasoning that was begun in Lecture 19 with the treatment of vacuity. We examine deficiencies in relevance and discuss fallacies. The lecture concludes by reviewing two challenges to understanding fallacies. One suggests that arguments are valid or fallacious depending on their context; the other suggests that fallacies should be understood as errors of procedure rather than form.
20.
Validity and Fallacies II
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9.
Attack and Defense I
This lecture and the next will consider the processes of refuting and rebuilding cases. Attacks on a case achieve the best possible resolution of a controversy. Decisions to be made in planning an attack include which arguments to attack, at which parts of the argument to focus the attack, and what type of attack to develop. These choices can be understood best if they are examined systematically.
9.
Attack and Defense I
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21.
Arguments between Friends
The final group of lectures moves into examining the practice of argumentation in society. The organizing principle is the concept of spheres of argument, sets of expectations that provide contexts for arguing. This lecture concerns the personal sphere. Dialogue is the mode of discourse, and participants seek to resolve their own disagreements. The ideal of a critical discussion is proposed. Practices that diverge from the ideal are noted and possibilities for repair are considered.
21.
Arguments between Friends
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10.
Attack and Defense II
This lecture continues the discussion of attacking arguments by focusing on a second set of choices: those related to the arrangement and presentation of the attacks, then the focus shifts to defending and rebuilding arguments. The lecture will consider the basic strategic options of the defense, and highlight the most significant choices. The lecture also will consider methods of refutation and how the pattern of attacks helps to move the dispute forward.
10.
Attack and Defense II
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22.
Arguments among Experts
Argumentation takes place where there are field-specific patterns of inference or appraisal. Argument fields can be defined by subject matter, orientation, or worldview. Drawing on examples from law, science, management, ethics, and religion, this lecture considers how the nature of argumentation is affected by the field in which it takes place. The lecture also considers interfield disputes and how they can proceed toward resolution.
22.
Arguments among Experts
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11.
Language and Style in Argument
This lecture completes a series that addresses the development of arguments into cases and the dynamics of controversy created by the presentation of a case. Here, the specific concern is with choices related to language and presentational style, how language is a factor, and how the presentation of an argument is part of its content.
11.
Language and Style in Argument
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23.
Public Argument and Democratic Life
The public sphere is the place for arguments about matters of interest to people as citizens, for example, deliberations about public policy. There are several ways to devise arguments that can appeal simultaneously to different political presumptions. A robust public sphere to negotiate tensions inherent in democratic argument is crucially important, and this lecture speculates on the current state of the public sphere.
23.
Public Argument and Democratic Life
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12.
Evaluating Evidence
With this lecture we turn to argument appraisal and focus on individual arguments. We begin with the evidence supporting an argument. It must be agreed to by the arguers for a meaningful discussion to proceed. Evidence can be categorized in many ways, but we will focus on examples, statistics, tangible objects, testimony, and social consensus.
12.
Evaluating Evidence
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24.
The Ends of Argumentation
This lecture considers two meanings of the term "end." It re-examines, from Lecture 5, how controversies begin by studying the conditions under which they end, but most of the lecture concerns "end" in the sense of the larger purposes that are served by the process of argumentation. Argumentation helps achieve the goals of a democratic society by cultivating the skills of critical thinking, reflective judgment, and active participation that are vital to the maintenance of a robust public sphere.
24.
The Ends of Argumentation
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24
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
The World of Game Theory
"Games" apply to all aspects of life. You're introduced to the subject with a perplexing dilemma, a brief history of the field, and some of its applications, and the three fundamental components of any game: players, strategies, and payoffs.
1.
The World of Game Theory
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13.
Whom Can You Trust?—Signaling and Screening
This lecture uses examples from mythology, the animal world, movies, card games, and real life to show you how players in a game of asymmetric information try to convey information, elicit it, or guard it.
13.
Whom Can You Trust?—Signaling and Screening
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2.
The Nature of the Game
You gain a deeper insight into the essential building blocks of players, strategies, and payoffs—most of them more complex and subtle than they might appear—along with two new concepts, rationality and common sense.
2.
The Nature of the Game
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14.
Encouraging Productivity—Incentive Schemes
How do you get others to do what you want them to do, whether in business, politics, international relations, or daily life? You learn how players create an alignment between the behavior they desire and the rewards other players receive and examine what can be done when the behavior being addressed is not directly observable.
14.
Encouraging Productivity—Incentive Schemes
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3.
The Real Life Chessboard—Sequential Games
In seeking the optimal strategies for games in which players take turns and where the full history of the game is known to all, you learn how to construct a "game tree" and are introduced to one of game theory's key concepts: the Nash equilibrium.
3.
The Real Life Chessboard—Sequential Games
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15.
The Persistence of Memory—Repeated Games
Although the games so far have been simplified examples assuming no previous or subsequent interactions, real-life games generally don't work that way. This lecture uses an iterated game of Prisoner's Dilemma to examine the impact of repeated interactions on determining optimal strategy.
15.
The Persistence of Memory—Repeated Games
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4.
Life's Little Games—The 2 x 2 Classic Games
You examine four classic two-player games, with each player considering his or her own two choices. Simple though they may be, these games appear at the heart of larger, more complicated games and provide important insights into dealing effectively with others.
4.
Life's Little Games—The 2 x 2 Classic Games
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16.
Does This Stuff Really Work?
Can game theory accurately model real-world behavior? You examine some reasons that its track record for predicting behavior in some designed experiments and some observed behavior has been mixed.
16.
Does This Stuff Really Work?
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5.
Guessing Right—Simultaneous Move Games
You learn a general way of representing simultaneous-move games—where players make decisions without knowing those of others—and acquire valuable tools to solve them. Military and business examples are used to introduce the minimax approach, the iterated elimination of dominated strategies, and the best response method.
5.
Guessing Right—Simultaneous Move Games
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17.
The Tragedy of the Commons
You explore what is essentially a many-player version of Prisoner's Dilemma. Each player's self-interested choices ironically contribute to a social dilemma in which every player suffers, in a scenario equally applicable to topics as diverse as global warming, traffic congestion, and the use of almost any nonrenewable resource.
17.
The Tragedy of the Commons
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6.
Practical Applications of Game Theory
Applying what you've learned, you see how a stock bid of $98 can beat one of $102; how insisting you lose a competition can be a winning strategy; and why being blackmailed can be in your best interest.
6.
Practical Applications of Game Theory
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18.
Games in Motion—Evolutionary Game Theory
Classical game theory relies heavily on the assumption of rationality. This lecture examines an evolutionary perspective, in which successful strategies are "selected for" and propagate through time.
18.
Games in Motion—Evolutionary Game Theory
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7.
A Random Walk—Dealing with Chance Events
Many games include aspects that depend on random chance. Probability theory addresses such uncertainties. Using a simultaneous, two-player game, Professor Stevens shows you how to use probability to define the expected (or average) value of a payoff in an uncertain situation.
7.
A Random Walk—Dealing with Chance Events
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19.
Game Theory and Economics—Oligopolies
You explore how game theory is used in economics—a discipline in which five Nobel Prize winners have been game theorists—by seeing how a monopolist determines optimum production levels and how other competitors affect the situation.
19.
Game Theory and Economics—Oligopolies
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8.
Pure Competition—Constant-Sum Games
Can you escape the second-guessing that arises when each player in a two-person game tries to anticipate the other's choice? You learn how every such game, no matter how apparently hopeless, has at least one Nash equilibrium point.
8.
Pure Competition—Constant-Sum Games
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20.
Voting—Determining the Will of the People
Can game theory evaluate voting systems? You apply what you've learned to several approaches and encounter a theory that no system ranking the candidates can avoid serious problems before you move on to two alternatives that might.
20.
Voting—Determining the Will of the People
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9.
Mixed Strategies and Nonzero-Sum Games
How should we think about mixed strategies? What makes a given strategy "best"? Is there an easy way to determine if a set of strategies is optimal? You explore these questions from a more intuitive perspective and learn how to use the techniques of Lecture 8 in nonzero-sum games.
9.
Mixed Strategies and Nonzero-Sum Games
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21.
Auctions and the Winner's Curse
Auctions play a significant role in our lives, affecting the ownership of radio frequencies, the flow of goods over the Internet, and even the results produced by search engines. This lecture discusses some important categories of auctions and examines which is best for buyer and seller.
21.
Auctions and the Winner's Curse
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10.
Threats, Promises, and Commitments
Can you gain an advantage by moving before, the game begins? Such actions, called "strategic moves," can be both effective and dangerous. You learn the three categories of strategic moves—commitments, threats, and promises—and the essential requirement for their success: credibility.
10.
Threats, Promises, and Commitments
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22.
Bargaining and Cooperative Games
Cooperative games are ones in which players may join in binding agreements. But how do you identify a division of the payoffs that is reasonable and fair? And what mechanisms persuade members of a coalition to accept their allotment?
22.
Bargaining and Cooperative Games
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11.
Credibility, Deterrence, and Compellence
This lecture explains how a player best gains credibility for a threat, promise, or commitment and also explores how these strategic moves are most commonly and advantageously used for deterrence (meant to maintain the status quo) and compellence (meant to change it).
11.
Credibility, Deterrence, and Compellence
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23.
Game Theory and Business—Co-opetition
In the first of two lectures on Brandenberger's and Nalebuff's practical application of game theory to business decision making, you learn how to construct an analytic schematic of key relationships and discuss the impact of both players and the concept of added value.
23.
Game Theory and Business—Co-opetition
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12.
Incomplete and Imperfect Information
What if some events or decisions are known to only one player? This lecture explores such games of asymmetric information and introduces you to a clever means of analyzing such a game.
12.
Incomplete and Imperfect Information
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24.
All the World's a Game
You complete your introduction to co-opetition by adding the concept of rules, tactics, and scope to the plays and added value before examining the materials in a broader context, particularly the relevance of game theory to our daily lives.
24.
All the World's a Game
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