36
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
What's It All About?
Professor Grabiner introduces you to the approach of the course, which deals not only with mathematical ideas but with their impact on the history of thought. This lecture previews the two areas of mathematics that are the focus of the course: probability and statistics, and geometry.
1.
What's It All About?
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19.
Plato's Meno—How Learning Is Possible
The first of two lectures on Plato's Meno shows his surprising use of geometry to discover whether learning is possible and whether virtue can be taught. Professor Grabiner poses the question: Is Plato's account of how learning takes place philosophically or psychologically plausible?
19.
Plato's Meno—How Learning Is Possible
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2.
You Bet Your Life—Statistics and Medicine
At age 40, the noted biologist Stephen Jay Gould learned he had a type of cancer whose median survival time after diagnosis was eight months. Discover why his knowledge of statistics gave him reason for hope, which proved well founded when he lived another 20 years.
2.
You Bet Your Life—Statistics and Medicine
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20.
Plato's Meno—Reasoning and Knowledge
Continuing your investigation of Meno, look at Plato's use of hypothetical reasoning and geometry to discover the nature of virtue. Conclude by going beyond Plato to consider the implications of his ideas for the teaching of mathematics today.
20.
Plato's Meno—Reasoning and Knowledge
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3.
You Bet Your Life—Cost-Benefit Analysis
A mainstay of today's economics, cost-benefit analysis has its origins in an argument justifying belief in God, proposed by the 17th-century philosopher Blaise Pascal. Examine his reasoning and the modern application of cost-benefit analysis to a disastrous decision in the automotive industry.
3.
You Bet Your Life—Cost-Benefit Analysis
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21.
More Euclidean Proofs, Direct and Indirect
This lecture returns to Euclid's geometry, with the eventual goal of showing the key theorems he needs to establish his logically elegant and philosophically important theory of parallels. Working your way through a series of proofs, learn how Euclid employs his basic assumptions, or postulates.
21.
More Euclidean Proofs, Direct and Indirect
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4.
Popular Statistics—Averages and Base Rates
In the first of three lectures on the popular use of statistics, investigate three ways of calculating averages: the mean, median, and mode. The preferred method depends on the nature of the data and the purpose of the analysis, which you test with examples.
4.
Popular Statistics—Averages and Base Rates
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22.
Descartes—Method and Mathematics
Widely considered the founder of modern philosophy, René Descartes followed a Euclidean model in developing his revolutionary ideas. Probe his famous "I think, therefore I am" argument along with some of his theological and scientific views, focusing on what his method owes to mathematics.
22.
Descartes—Method and Mathematics
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5.
Popular Statistics—Graphs
Learn how to separate good graphs from bad by examining cases of each and reviewing questions to ask of any graphically presented information. The best graphs promote fruitful thinking, while the worst represent poor statistical reasoning or even a deliberate attempt to deceive.
5.
Popular Statistics—Graphs
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23.
Spinoza and Jefferson
This lecture profiles two heirs of the methods of demonstrative science as described by Aristotle, exemplified by Euclid, and reaffirmed by Descartes. Spinoza used geometric rigor to construct his philosophical system, while Jefferson gave the Declaration of Independence the form of a Euclidean proof.
23.
Spinoza and Jefferson
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6.
Popular Statistics—Polling and Sampling
Concluding your survey of popular statistics, you look at public opinion polling and the sampling process that makes it possible. Professor Grabiner uses a bowl of M&Ms as a realistic model of sampling, and she discusses important questions to ask about the results of any poll.
6.
Popular Statistics—Polling and Sampling
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24.
Consensus and Optimism in the 18th Century
Mathematics, says Professor Grabiner, underlies much of 18th-century Western thought. See how Voltaire, Adam Smith, and others applied the power of mathematical precision to philosophy, a trend that helped shape the Enlightenment idea of progress.
24.
Consensus and Optimism in the 18th Century
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7.
The Birth of Social Statistics
Geometry has been around for more than 2,000 years, but social statistics is a relatively new field, developed in part by Adolphe Quetelet in the 19th century. Investigate what inspired Quetelet to apply mathematics to the study of society and how the bell curve led him to the concept of the "average man."
7.
The Birth of Social Statistics
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25.
Euclid—Parallels, Without Postulate 5
Having covered the triumphal march of Euclidean geometry into the Age of Enlightenment, you begin the third part of the course, which charts the stunning reversal of the semireligious worship of Euclid. This lecture lays the groundwork by focusing on Euclid's theory of parallel lines.
25.
Euclid—Parallels, Without Postulate 5
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8.
Probability, Multiplication, and Permutations
Probing deeper into the origin of the bell curve, focus on the definition of probability, the multiplication principle, and the three basic laws of probability. Also study real-world examples, with an eye on the broader historical and philosophical implications.
8.
Probability, Multiplication, and Permutations
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26.
Euclid—Parallels, Needing Postulate 5
Euclid's fifth postulate, on which three of his propositions of parallels hinge, seems far from self-evident, unlike its modern restatement used in geometry textbooks. Work through several proofs that rely on Postulate Five, examining why it is necessary to Euclid's system and why it was so controversial.
26.
Euclid—Parallels, Needing Postulate 5
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9.
Combinations and Probability Graphs
Adding the concept of combinations to the material from the previous lecture, Professor Grabiner shows why a bell curve results from coin flips, height measurements, and other random phenomena. Many situations are mathematically like flipping coins, which raises the question of whether randomness is a property of the real world.
9.
Combinations and Probability Graphs
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27.
Kant, Causality, and Metaphysics
The first of two lectures on Immanuel Kant examines Kant's question of whether metaphysics is possible. Study Kant's classification scheme, which confines metaphysical statements such as "every effect has a cause" to a category called the synthetic a priori.
27.
Kant, Causality, and Metaphysics
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10.
Probability, Determinism, and Free Will
Explore two approaches to free will. Pierre-Simon Laplace believed that probabilistic reasoning only serves to mask ignorance of what, in principle, can be predicted with certainty. Influenced by the kinetic theory of gases, James Clerk Maxwell countered that nothing is absolutely determined and free will is possible.
10.
Probability, Determinism, and Free Will
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28.
Kant's Theory of Space and Time
Learn how geometry provides paradigmatic examples of synthetic a priori judgments, required by Kant's view of metaphysics. Kant's picture of the universe takes for granted that space is Euclidean, an idea that went unquestioned by the greatest thinkers of the 18th century.
28.
Kant's Theory of Space and Time
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11.
Probability Problems for Fun and Profit
This lecture conducts you through a wide range of interesting problems in probability, including one that may save you from burglars. Conclude by examining the distribution of large numbers of samples and their relations to the bell curve and the concept of sampling error.
11.
Probability Problems for Fun and Profit
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29.
Euclidean Space, Perspective, and Art
Art and Euclid have gone hand in hand since the Renaissance. Investigate how painters and architects, including Piero della Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci, Albrecht Dürer, Michelangelo, and Raphael, used Euclidean geometry to map three-dimensional space onto flat surfaces and to design buildings embodying geometric balance.
29.
Euclidean Space, Perspective, and Art
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12.
Probability and Modern Science
Turning to the sciences, Professor Grabiner shows how probability underlies Gregor Mendel's pioneering work in genetics. In the social sciences, she examines the debate over race and IQ scores, emphasizing that the individual, not the averages, is what's real.
12.
Probability and Modern Science
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30.
Non-Euclidean Geometry—History and Examples
This lecture introduces one of the most important discoveries in modern mathematics: non-Euclidean geometry, a new domain that developed by assuming Euclid's fifth postulate is false. Three 19th-century mathematicians—Gauss, Lobachevsky, and Bolyai—independently discovered the self-consistent geometry that emerges from this daring assumption.
30.
Non-Euclidean Geometry—History and Examples
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13.
From Probability to Certainty
This lecture introduces the second part of the course, which examines geometry and its interactions with philosophy. Begin by comparing probabilistic and statistical reasoning on the one hand, with exact and logical reasoning on the other. What sorts of questions are suited to each?
13.
From Probability to Certainty
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31.
Non-Euclidean Geometries and Relativity
Delve deeper into non-Euclidean geometry, distinguishing between three types of surfaces: Euclidean and flat, Lobachevskian and negatively curved, and Riemannian and positively curved. Einstein discovered that a non-Euclidean geometry of the Riemannian type had the properties he needed for his general theory of relativity.
31.
Non-Euclidean Geometries and Relativity
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14.
Appearance and Reality—Plato's Divided Line
Plato's philosophy is deeply grounded in mathematical ideas, especially those from ancient Greek geometry. In this lecture and the next, you focus on Plato's Republic. Its central image of the Divided Line is a geometric metaphor about the nature of reality, being, and knowledge.
14.
Appearance and Reality—Plato's Divided Line
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32.
Non-Euclidean Geometry and Philosophy
Philosophers had long valued Euclidean geometry for giving a self-evidently true account of the world. But how did they react to the possibility that we live in a non-Euclidean space? Explore the quest to understand the geometric nature of reality.
32.
Non-Euclidean Geometry and Philosophy
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15.
Plato's Cave—The Nature of Learning
In his famous Myth of the Cave, Plato depicts a search for truth that extends beyond everyday appearances. Professor Grabiner shows how Plato was inspired by mathematics, which he saw as the paradigm for order in the universe—a view that had immense impact on later scientists such as Kepler and Newton.
15.
Plato's Cave—The Nature of Learning
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33.
Art, Philosophy, and Non-Euclidean Geometry
This lecture charts the creative responses to non-Euclidean geometry and to Einstein's theory of relativity. Examine works by artists such as Picasso, Georges Braque, Marcel Duchamp, René Magritte, Salvador Dalí, Max Ernst, and architects such as Frank Gehry.
33.
Art, Philosophy, and Non-Euclidean Geometry
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16.
Euclid's Elements—Background and Structure
Written around 300 B.C.E., Euclid's Elements of Geometry is the most successful textbook in history. Sample its riches by studying the underpinnings of Euclid's approach and looking closely at his proof that an equilateral triangle can be constructed with a given line as its side.
16.
Euclid's Elements—Background and Structure
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34.
Culture and Mathematics in Classical China
Other cultures developed complex mathematics independently of the West. Investigate China as a fascinating example, where geometry long flourished at a sophisticated level, employing methods very different from those in Europe and in a context much less influenced by philosophy.
34.
Culture and Mathematics in Classical China
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17.
Euclid's Elements—A Model of Reasoning
This lecture focuses on the logical structure of Euclid's Elements as a model for scientific reasoning. You also examine what Aristotle said about the nature of definitions, axioms, and postulates and the circumstances under which logic can reveal truth.
17.
Euclid's Elements—A Model of Reasoning
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35.
The Voice of the Critics
Survey some of the thinkers who have criticized the influence of mathematics on culture throughout history, ranging from Pascal and Malthus to Dickens and Wordsworth. A sample of their objections: Mathematical reasoning gives a false sense of precision, and mathematical thinking breeds inhumanity.
35.
The Voice of the Critics
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18.
Logic and Logical Fallacies—Why They Matter
Addressing the nature of logical reasoning, this lecture examines the forms of argument used by Euclid, including modus ponens, modus tollens, and proof by contradiction, as well as such logical fallacies as affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent.
18.
Logic and Logical Fallacies—Why They Matter
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36.
Mathematics and the Modern World
After reviewing the major conclusions of the course, Professor Grabiner ends with four modern interactions between mathematics and philosophy: entropy and why time doesn't run backward; chaos theory; Kurt Gödel's demonstration that the consistency of mathematics can't be proven; and the questions raised by the computer revolution.
36.
Mathematics and the Modern World
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12
Lectures
45
minutes/lecture
1.
Overtones—Symphony in a Single Note
Start the course with a short violin passage from Bach, played by Professor Kung. Then analyze the harmonic series behind a single note, which involves a mixture of different frequencies, called overtones or harmonics. Learn about the physics of stringed and wind instruments, and study the sounds produced by a range of instruments, including the violin, flute, clarinet, timpani, and a fascinating instrument invented by Professor Kung’s students.
1.
Overtones—Symphony in a Single Note
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7.
Rhythm—From Numbers to Patterns
All compositions depend on rhythm and the way beats are grouped under what are called time signatures. Begin with a duo for clapping hands. Next, probe the effect produced by a distinctive change in the grouping of beats called a hemiola. Also investigate polyrhythms, the simultaneous juxtaposition of different rhythms. Listen to examples from composers including Handel, Tchaikovsky, and Chopin. Close with an unusual exercise in which you use musical notation to prove a conjecture about infinite sums.
7.
Rhythm—From Numbers to Patterns
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2.
Timbre—Why Each Instrument Sounds Different
After hearing the opening measures of Bach’s “Air on the G String,” investigate why this piece is conventionally played on a single string of the violin. The reason has to do with timbre, which determines why a flute sounds different from a violin and why a melody played on the G string sounds not just lower, but altered. The study of timbre introduces you to a mathematical idea called the Fourier transform—and how it relates to the anatomy of your inner ear.
2.
Timbre—Why Each Instrument Sounds Different
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8.
Transformations and Symmetry
Bach and other composers played with the structure of music in ways similar to what would later be called mathematical group theory. Explore techniques for transforming a melody by inversion, reversal, transposition, augmentation, and diminution. End with a table canon credited to Mozart, in which the sheet music is read by one musician right-side up and by the other upside down. Professor Kung is joined by a special guest for this duet.
8.
Transformations and Symmetry
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3.
Pitch and Auditory Illusions
The fundamental frequency of a male voice is too low to be reproduced by the speaker of a cell phone. So why don’t all callers sound like women? Learn that the answer involves the way your brain fills in missing information, convincing you that you hear sounds that aren’t really there. Explore examples of auditory illusions that will leave you wondering if you can ever believe your ears again.
3.
Pitch and Auditory Illusions
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9.
Self-Reference from Bach to Gödel
Music and mathematics are filled with self-reference, from Bach’s habit of embedding his own name in musical phrases, to Kurt Gödel’s demonstration that mathematics cannot prove its own consistency. Embark on a journey through increasingly complex levels of self-reference, discovering that music and mathematics are like a house of mirrors, reflecting ideas between them. For example, the table canon from Lecture 8 can be displayed on the single face of a Möbius strip.
9.
Self-Reference from Bach to Gödel
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4.
How Scales Are Constructed
Professor Kung contrasts a passage from Vivaldi with a Chinese folk tune. Why is one so easily distinguishable from the other? Probe the diverse mathematics of musical scales, which explains the characteristic sound of different musical traditions. Learn how a five-note scale is constructed versus a more complex seven-note scale. What are the relative advantages of each? As a bonus, discover why no piano is ever in tune.
4.
How Scales Are Constructed
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10.
Composing with Math—Classical to Avant-Garde
Sometimes composers create their works using mathematics. Mozart did this with a waltz, whose sequence of measures was determined by the roll of dice—with 759 trillion resulting combinations. Learn how Arnold Schoenberg used mathematics in the 20th century to design an alternative to tonal music—atonal music—and how a Schoenberg-like system of encoding notes has more recently made melodies searchable by computer.
10.
Composing with Math—Classical to Avant-Garde
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5.
How Scale Tunings and Composition Coevolved
Compare passages from Bach’s “Chaconne” and a very modern piece, noting how the compositional styles of Western music have evolved alongside small differences in scale tunings. Then explore the mathematics of tuning, focusing on how the exact pitches in a scale are calculated and why there are 12 notes per octave in Western music. Investigate the alternatives, including a scale with 41 notes per octave.
5.
How Scale Tunings and Composition Coevolved
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11.
The Digital Delivery of Music
What is the technology behind today’s recorded music? Delve into the mathematics of digital sampling, audio compression, and error correction—techniques that allow thousands of hours of music to fit onto a portable media player at a sound quality that is astonishingly good. Investigate the difference between analog and digital sound, and explore the technology that allows Professor Kung’s untrained singing voice to be recorded perfectly in tune.
11.
The Digital Delivery of Music
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6.
Dissonance and Piano Tuning
Dissonance is a discordant sound produced by two or more notes sounding displeasing or rough. The “roughness” is quantifiable as a series of beats—a “wawawa” noise caused by interfering sound waves. Learn how to predict this phenomenon using basic trigonometry. Consider several examples, then discover how to use beats to tune a piano. End with a mathematical coda, proving the beat equation using basic algebra and trigonometry.
6.
Dissonance and Piano Tuning
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12.
Math, Music, and the Mind
Conclude with an eight-part finale, in which you range widely through the territory that connects mathematics, music, and the mind. Among the questions you address: What happens in the brain of an infant exposed to music? Why do child prodigies often excel in the areas of math, music, or chess? And how do creativity, abstraction, and beauty unite music and mathematics, despite being on opposite ends of the arts and sciences?
12.
Math, Music, and the Mind
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