24
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
Introducing Argumentation and Rhetoric
We will examine argumentation in its classical sense—as the study of effective reasoning. This introductory lecture will relate argumentation to the field of rhetoric and consider how argumentation is ethical. With a clear understanding of basic terms, we will preview the directions we will take in the course.
1.
Introducing Argumentation and Rhetoric
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13.
Reasoning from Parts to Whole
The next six lectures focus on inferences, the most complex parts of an argument, and how they determine the argument scheme to be used. Six common inference patterns will be reviewed. This lecture considers inferences from example, which are used to relate specific cases to general claims and to apply general statements to specific cases. The lecture will also identify common errors.
13.
Reasoning from Parts to Whole
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2.
Underlying Assumptions of Argumentation
Argumentation is a means of decision-making, and there are several assumptions that we make when we use it. This lecture will focus on five key assumptions.
2.
Underlying Assumptions of Argumentation
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14.
Reasoning with Comparisons
A common form of inference is that like things should be treated alike. This is reasoning from analogy. This lecture describes types of analogies and tests for this reasoning with comparisons. It will consider why logicians often consider analogy the weakest type of inference, while rhetoricians often consider it the strongest. We will address two uses of the argument from analogy: the judicial analogy and the argument a fortiori, sometimes called a "super-analogy."
14.
Reasoning with Comparisons
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3.
Formal and Informal Argumentation
This lecture will review the defining features of deduction and induction and will summarize three major forms of deductive reasoning: categorical, conditional, and disjunctive. The lecture will conclude by emphasizing why informal reasoning is involved in contemporary study of argumentation.
3.
Formal and Informal Argumentation
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15.
Establishing Correlations
The focus of this lecture is on inferences from sign. Sign inferences establish the relationship between two factors so one can be predicted from knowledge of the other. Sign arguments are used to infer the unknown from the known, to predict outcomes, and to rely on the judgment of expert authorities. The lecture concludes with pitfalls to avoid in making sign inferences.
15.
Establishing Correlations
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4.
History of Argumentation Studies
The study of informal argumentation can be traced to the beginnings of rhetoric in ancient Greece. During the Renaissance, the subject matter of rhetoric was divided, with argumentation assigned to philosophy. Formal logic was held to be the highest form of reasoning, and argumentation tried to imitate it. Since the mid-20th century, theorists have identified weaknesses in the formal-logic model and have revitalized the study of argumentation.
4.
History of Argumentation Studies
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16.
Moving from Cause to Effect
Causal inferences assert that one factor has influence over another. Influence must be inferred because it cannot be observed. The lecture will consider meanings of the concept of causation, purposes for which causal arguments are used, and methods that have been used to infer the existence of causal influence. The lecture will conclude by discussing factors that can undermine a causal inference.
16.
Moving from Cause to Effect
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5.
Argument Analysis and Diagramming
This lecture examines how controversies begin and how the process of arguing produces individual arguments. It will consider the claim as the most basic part of the argument and identify types of claims. Then it will present the structure of an argument: a claim, evidence for it, an inference linking the evidence to the claim, and a warrant justifying that inference.
5.
Argument Analysis and Diagramming
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17.
Commonplaces and Arguments from Form
This lecture considers inferences based on social knowledge and inferences that resemble deductions but are not. Commonplaces are beliefs or judgments that an audience generally accepts as being true. Often these come in pairs of seemingly opposed terms with each term sometimes being preferred. Dilemmas, arguments from hypothesis, and arguments from probabilities are examples of inferences that are not deductive but gain their power from a form that resembles deduction.
17.
Commonplaces and Arguments from Form
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6.
Complex Structures of Argument
The diagram presented in Lecture 5 will help us understand a simple argument structure, but most arguments are embedded in complex structures. A claim in one part of the argument may be evidence in another, and subsidiary claims are joined to support a main claim or resolution. Mapping and analyzing these structures offers considerable advantages, and these will be reviewed.
6.
Complex Structures of Argument
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18.
Hybrid Patterns of Inference
This lecture will examine three hybrid patterns: reasoning with rules, reasoning about values, and dissociation.
18.
Hybrid Patterns of Inference
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7.
Case Construction—Requirements and Options
The complex structure of argument discussed in Lecture 6 can be termed a case: the pattern of arguments used to support a claim. In assembling a case, arguers must be sure to address all the issues raised by the claim in the particular situation. Addressing the issues will satisfy an initial burden of proof. In meeting these requirements, arguers have choices about what arguments to use and how to arrange them.
7.
Case Construction—Requirements and Options
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19.
Validity and Fallacies I
The central question of this and the next lecture is: What makes a good argument? The answer is validity. In formal reasoning, validity is a matter of structure unrelated to content. In informal reasoning, it means following patterns that have led to good results and avoided fallacies. This lecture examines errors specific to each pattern of inference, and then considers errors of vacuity ("empty" arguments).
19.
Validity and Fallacies I
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8.
Stasis—The Heart of the Controversy
Stasis refers to the focal point of dispute, the point at which contending positions meet. It is determined by the choices that advocates make about what to stipulate and what to contest. The first decision to be made in responding to a case is what the point of stasis will be. This lecture will illustrate the concept, which is drawn from ancient theories of rhetoric. Finally, using the concept of stasis will be shown as useful for both the arguer and the analyst of argument.
8.
Stasis—The Heart of the Controversy
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20.
Validity and Fallacies II
This lecture continues the discussion of general errors in reasoning that was begun in Lecture 19 with the treatment of vacuity. We examine deficiencies in relevance and discuss fallacies. The lecture concludes by reviewing two challenges to understanding fallacies. One suggests that arguments are valid or fallacious depending on their context; the other suggests that fallacies should be understood as errors of procedure rather than form.
20.
Validity and Fallacies II
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9.
Attack and Defense I
This lecture and the next will consider the processes of refuting and rebuilding cases. Attacks on a case achieve the best possible resolution of a controversy. Decisions to be made in planning an attack include which arguments to attack, at which parts of the argument to focus the attack, and what type of attack to develop. These choices can be understood best if they are examined systematically.
9.
Attack and Defense I
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21.
Arguments between Friends
The final group of lectures moves into examining the practice of argumentation in society. The organizing principle is the concept of spheres of argument, sets of expectations that provide contexts for arguing. This lecture concerns the personal sphere. Dialogue is the mode of discourse, and participants seek to resolve their own disagreements. The ideal of a critical discussion is proposed. Practices that diverge from the ideal are noted and possibilities for repair are considered.
21.
Arguments between Friends
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10.
Attack and Defense II
This lecture continues the discussion of attacking arguments by focusing on a second set of choices: those related to the arrangement and presentation of the attacks, then the focus shifts to defending and rebuilding arguments. The lecture will consider the basic strategic options of the defense, and highlight the most significant choices. The lecture also will consider methods of refutation and how the pattern of attacks helps to move the dispute forward.
10.
Attack and Defense II
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22.
Arguments among Experts
Argumentation takes place where there are field-specific patterns of inference or appraisal. Argument fields can be defined by subject matter, orientation, or worldview. Drawing on examples from law, science, management, ethics, and religion, this lecture considers how the nature of argumentation is affected by the field in which it takes place. The lecture also considers interfield disputes and how they can proceed toward resolution.
22.
Arguments among Experts
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11.
Language and Style in Argument
This lecture completes a series that addresses the development of arguments into cases and the dynamics of controversy created by the presentation of a case. Here, the specific concern is with choices related to language and presentational style, how language is a factor, and how the presentation of an argument is part of its content.
11.
Language and Style in Argument
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23.
Public Argument and Democratic Life
The public sphere is the place for arguments about matters of interest to people as citizens, for example, deliberations about public policy. There are several ways to devise arguments that can appeal simultaneously to different political presumptions. A robust public sphere to negotiate tensions inherent in democratic argument is crucially important, and this lecture speculates on the current state of the public sphere.
23.
Public Argument and Democratic Life
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12.
Evaluating Evidence
With this lecture we turn to argument appraisal and focus on individual arguments. We begin with the evidence supporting an argument. It must be agreed to by the arguers for a meaningful discussion to proceed. Evidence can be categorized in many ways, but we will focus on examples, statistics, tangible objects, testimony, and social consensus.
12.
Evaluating Evidence
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24.
The Ends of Argumentation
This lecture considers two meanings of the term "end." It re-examines, from Lecture 5, how controversies begin by studying the conditions under which they end, but most of the lecture concerns "end" in the sense of the larger purposes that are served by the process of argumentation. Argumentation helps achieve the goals of a democratic society by cultivating the skills of critical thinking, reflective judgment, and active participation that are vital to the maintenance of a robust public sphere.
24.
The Ends of Argumentation
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24
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
How We Think and How to Think Better
Thinking is fundamental to our daily lives, and this introduction surveys the philosopher’s toolkit, strategies to improve our thinking—visualization, simplification, the principles of debate, and techniques for social reasoning. Because the best philosophy is done in conjunction with other disciplines, you’ll apply these tools to economics, psychology, and more.
1.
How We Think and How to Think Better
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13.
Rhetoric versus Rationality
Guard yourself against the perils of rhetoric. By learning the ins and outs of ethos, pathos, and logos, you’ll be prepared to parry manipulative rhetoric as it comes—especially from the broadcast media. You’ll also develop your ability to visualize patterns of exchange, which can assist you with making persuasive presentations.
13.
Rhetoric versus Rationality
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2.
Cool Rationality and Hot Thought
Which is a better tool for decision making, reason or emotion? As this lecture argues, both cool rationality and hot emotion have their place. Understanding the strengths and weaknesses of each can help us make better decisions, both in the heat of a moment and during long-term analysis.
2.
Cool Rationality and Hot Thought
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14.
Bogus Arguments and How to Defuse Them
Tour the world of bad arguments. From ad hominem attacks to false alternatives and hasty generalizations, this lecture presents the most common logical fallacies and offers you the chance to test your knowledge against a myriad of examples. But be forewarned: There’s no guarantee that a bad argument is committing just one fallacy.
14.
Bogus Arguments and How to Defuse Them
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3.
The Strategy of Visualization
Pull out your pen and paper and put “conceptual visualization” to work. Humans excel at pattern recognition, and what we see in our mind’s eye can aid us in solving even the most daunting of puzzles, from the Pythagorean theorem to Special Relativity. You’ll see how sketches and matrices are powerful aids for information management.
3.
The Strategy of Visualization
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15.
The Great Debate
Continue to hone your argumentative skills by evaluating a debate over the future of freedom and democracy. You’ll analyze the rhetoric and see the strategies at work in a real back-and-forth, and you’ll come away with a sharpened ear for appeals to emotion, syllogisms, and other rhetorical techniques of persuasion.
15.
The Great Debate
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4.
Visualizing Concepts and Propositions
Explore the most basic elements of thought to prepare for the coming lectures. Concepts are the atoms of thought, expressed by words and illustrated by Venn diagrams and concept trees. Words form sentences—or propositions—which are the molecules of thought. Together, concepts and propositions provide a structural framework to express thought and convey information.
4.
Visualizing Concepts and Propositions
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16.
Outwitting the Advertiser
Recommended by doctors! Low fat! Call today! The world of advertising is filled with psychological manipulation, misleading half-truths, and magic words designed to get us to buy. This lecture cuts through the spin to show us the advertiser’s favorite techniques, from beautiful spokespeople to empty messaging.
16.
Outwitting the Advertiser
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5.
The Power of Thought Experiments
Harness the power of your imagination with this hands-on lecture, which introduces several strategies for solving real-world problems with thought experiments. As lessons from economics, business, ethics, and physics show, the imagination is one of our finest tools for exploring reality.
5.
The Power of Thought Experiments
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17.
Putting a Spin on Statistics
Facts and stats are clear and objective, right? Of course not. Statistics are great because they give us information in an easy-to-understand way, but they can also be dangerously misleading. Something as simple as the choice between mean, median, and mode can skew the facts. The ability to evaluate statistics allows you to draw your own conclusions.
17.
Putting a Spin on Statistics
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6.
Thinking like Aristotle
So far, the course has emphasized visual techniques for logical thinking. In this lecture you’ll discover one of the greatest developments of human thought. Aristotle’s “square of oppositions” is the core of our logical system and provides a bridge to connect visualization with the flow of rational argument.
6.
Thinking like Aristotle
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18.
Poker, Probability, and Everyday Life
Life is filled with chance, and unfortunately it’s not as easy to navigate as counting face cards. This survey of probability will allow you to deal with chance more rationally. You’ll study the law of large numbers, how to calculate the probability of one or more events, and the gambler’s fallacy that keeps casinos in business.
18.
Poker, Probability, and Everyday Life
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7.
Ironclad, Airtight Validity
What makes an argument valid? Continue your study of Aristotelian logic by looking at how propositions form airtight arguments. By mapping out the logic of syllogisms with Venn diagrams, you’ll enhance your deductive reasoning skills—and you’ll see that the unfortunate trade-off for an absolutely airtight syllogism is that it doesn’t really offer any new information.
7.
Ironclad, Airtight Validity
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19.
Decisions, Decisions
Turn your attention to decision theory, the surefire way to make the most rational decision with the evidence you have. The key is to maximize expected utility. Doing so can tell you everything from which wine to buy for a dinner party to how to respond to an influenza outbreak. Pascal even used decision theory to determine his belief in God.
19.
Decisions, Decisions
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8.
Thinking outside the Box
Creativity can’t be taught, but it can be cultivated. Take a break from the traditional lecture with this enjoyable workshop on creative, sideways thinking. Here you’ll participate in a number of engaging exercises designed to break your standard habits of thought and help you solve problems by thinking outside the box.
8.
Thinking outside the Box
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20.
Thinking Scientifically
What’s the difference between real science and pseudoscience? What’s wrong with astrology and phrenology? Find out how to build your own pseudoscience, complete with ambiguous phenomena and post-hoc modifications, so you’ll know what to watch out for when you’re presented with something that looks like science but doesn’t pass the test of a rigorous scientific theory.
20.
Thinking Scientifically
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9.
The Flow of Argument
Ironclad, deductive syllogisms won’t get us very far in terms of new information, so this lecture looks beyond that simple framework and introduces you to the flow of complex arguments. By understanding logical “flow,” you’ll have the tools to determine an argument’s strengths and weaknesses. Is the conclusion inescapable, or merely probable? How “sound” is the argument?
9.
The Flow of Argument
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21.
Put It to the Test—Beautiful Experiments
Analyzing the structure of scientific experiments is an important part of the philosopher’s toolkit. The risks, power, and limits of experimentation can help you back your own claims and evaluate the claims of others. Here you’ll examine the parts of a good experiment—control groups, randomized testing, and what to do with unexpected results
21.
Put It to the Test—Beautiful Experiments
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10.
Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart
Dive into the world of heuristics, simple rules of thumb that guide us through immediate decisions when we lack the time needed for logical analysis. You’ll reflect on the wisdom of crowds, find out why German college students do better than Americans on U.S. demographic quizzes, and consider the utility of “good enough” solutions.
10.
Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart
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22.
Game Theory and Beyond
Where decision theory leaves off, game theory begins. This lecture walks you through the techniques of decision making in a social context. You’ll look at the cooperation and competition inherent to the Prisoner’s Dilemma, and you’ll reflect on behavioral economics, a field that studies irrational action.
22.
Game Theory and Beyond
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11.
Why We Make Misteaks
The bad news is that to err is human. Thanks to information biases, selective memories, and unreliable heuristics, systematic error is built into the way we think. The good news is that once we become aware of these biases, we can compensate for them. This lecture shows you how.
11.
Why We Make Misteaks
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23.
Thinking with Models
Synthesize the earlier lectures on visualization, simplification, and thought experiments and check out the benefits of thinking with models. The three-stage model—input, mechanism, and output—is a great way to put your toolkit strategies to work, whether you want to predict tomorrow’s weather, explain why the moon exists, or understand segregated neighborhoods.
23.
Thinking with Models
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12.
Rational Discussion in a Polarized Context
How do you have a rational discussion with someone with a radically different viewpoint? Political polarization is real, and media gives us instant access to slanted sources. Here you’ll unpack several negotiation strategies to reconcile two sides in an argument—and examine the signs of a hopelessly irrational discussion.
12.
Rational Discussion in a Polarized Context
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24.
Lessons from the Great Thinkers
Conclude the course with a journey through the minds of great thinkers from Plato and Aristotle to Darwin and Einstein. You’ll consider what made them great thinkers, and you’ll pick up a few tips to improve your own thinking.
24.
Lessons from the Great Thinkers
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