36
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
Religion and Modernity
Modernity brought new views of knowledge and reality and new methods of inquiry, allowing Western thinkers unprecedented freedom to criticize religion and even to question the existence of God. Learn how this ushered in a tension between faith and suspicion that has endured as a major dynamic of Western religious thought.
1.
Religion and Modernity
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19.
Marx—Religion as False Consciousness
Not everyone agreed with Feuerbach that the power of thought was enough to change human life. Here you see how Karl Marx argued for a more materialistic interpretation of religion and culture, portraying religion as a symptom of a human alienation grounded in social and economic structures.
19.
Marx—Religion as False Consciousness
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2.
From Suspicion to the Premodern Cosmos
Learn how Friedrich Nietzsche's 1882 picture of a meaningless cosmos marked a high point of the modern conflict between faith and suspicion, offering a stark contrast to the once-dominant conception of the Christian cosmos reflected most clearly in the work of the medieval period's major Christian thinker, Thomas Aquinas.
2.
From Suspicion to the Premodern Cosmos
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20.
Nietzsche and the Genealogy of Morals
Friedrich Nietzsche was a critic of both religion and modernity. In examining his On the Genealogy of Morals, you see the clearest expression of his view that the modern period is a culmination of the nihilistic "slave morality" at the heart of Judaism and Christianity.
20.
Nietzsche and the Genealogy of Morals
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3.
From Catholicism to Protestantism
Nietzsche was far from the first challenge posed to Aquinas, as you learn in this examination of the theological, social, and cultural conflicts that began to loosen Catholicism's hold on Europe as early as the 14th century, ultimately paving the way for Martin Luther's radical new Christian vision.
3.
From Catholicism to Protestantism
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21.
Nietzsche—Religion and the Ascetic Ideal
Continuing Nietzsche's Genealogy, you explore his presentation of a process by which "bad conscience" uses religion to increase feelings of guilt, ultimately culminating in Christianity and its "ascetic ideal," of which modern ideals of science and this-worldliness are but the latest stages of development.
21.
Nietzsche—Religion and the Ascetic Ideal
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4.
Scientific Revolution and Descartes
Watch modernity begin with the arrival of the Protestant Reformation, which brought not only religious wars and challenges to established social structures but also a Scientific Revolution and radical new ideas about the cosmos. These changes inspired thinkers like Rene Descartes to reconsider the nature of intellectual authority.
4.
Scientific Revolution and Descartes
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22.
Freud—Religion as Neurosis
Following along the "unmasking" trail blazed by Feuerbach, Sigmund Freud sought to expose religion from a psychological perspective. Here, you see faith presented as a "universal obsessional neurosis" born out of the Oedipal complex, with God as a wish fulfillment of the loving father able to forgive our hatred of him.
22.
Freud—Religion as Neurosis
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5.
Descartes and Modern Philosophy
Grasp how Descartes' efforts to find new foundations for knowledge led him to make sharp distinctions between reason and revelation, philosophy and theology, and make him, for many, the first truly modern philosopher.
5.
Descartes and Modern Philosophy
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23.
Barth and the End of Liberal Theology
Shaken by the brutality of World War I, Karl Barth published Epistle to the Romans, launching 20th-century religious thought and rejecting the liberalism of the 19th century. He argued that the task of the religious thinker is one of "confession," acknowledging and reflecting on God's saving message.
23.
Barth and the End of Liberal Theology
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6.
Enlightenment and Religion
The Enlightenment produced thinkers who embraced a natural, universal human reason they saw as promising freedom from the past and tradition. See how thinkers like John Locke presented religion with modernity's first great challenge: Can religion be rational? Some, like Locke himself, answered the question with a definitive "yes" while others thought the answer was clearly "no."
6.
Enlightenment and Religion
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24.
Theology and Suspicion
Prior to Barth, those suspicious of religion saw it, in varying degrees, as a product of "false-consciousness." Learn in this lecture how Barth and subsequent thinkers like Paul Ricoeur began to integrate this into their analysis, acknowledging how religion can foster illusions and false, mystifying comforts, even as they affirmed the richness, value, and realism of genuine religious faith.
24.
Theology and Suspicion
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7.
Natural Religion and Its Critics
The Enlightenment idealization of reason created its own debates. You learn to contrast the "rationalism" of Descartes—with knowledge's origins found in innate ideas—with the "empiricism" of thinkers like David Hume and Denis Diderot, who argued that knowledge must be grounded in the evidence of our senses.
7.
Natural Religion and Its Critics
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25.
Protestant Theology after Barth
Examine the spectrum of Protestant theology after Barth, from the "correlational theology" that sought to reconcile human experience with Christian revelation to the evangelical ideas of the mid-20th century, which saw revelation as offering "fixed truths" and "moral absolutes" for all times.
25.
Protestant Theology after Barth
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8.
Kant—Religion and Moral Reason
Follow Immanuel Kant's reasoning as he seeks a way beyond the rational-empirical impasse with a "critical philosophy" that claims knowledge is based not in the passive reception of sense impressions, but rather in the mind's active organization of them. From this perspective on the nature of human knowledge, we can never "know" God, but we can rationally postulate God's existence.
8.
Kant—Religion and Moral Reason
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26.
20th-Century Catholicism
In this sweeping examination, you learn that much of the Catholic theology of the 20th century was dedicated to overcoming the antimodernism instituted at the First Vatican Council in 1869—culminating in 1962's
Vatican II—in spite of antimodernist views that continue to hold substantial power.
26.
20th-Century Catholicism
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9.
Kant, Romanticism, and Pietism
Kant's revolutionary ideas were extremely influential and remain so today, but they raised many questions for 19th-century religious thinkers dissatisfied by the idea of God as "postulate." You examine the alternatives offered by two radically different schools of thought.
9.
Kant, Romanticism, and Pietism
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27.
Modern Jewish Philosophy
Focus on the work of Martin Buber—who believed that so-called "I-You" relationships fostered contact with the divine—and that of Franz Rosenzweig, whose "New Thinking" focused on the revelatory encounter with God's love, through which one is released into "the flow of life."
27.
Modern Jewish Philosophy
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10.
Schleiermacher—Religion and Experience
Often called the father of modern theology, Friedrich Schleiermacher was deeply influenced not only by Kant, but also by Romantic and pietist views of religious experience. You grasp his defense of religion as being grounded in a "sense," "intuition," or "feeling" of the whole of the universe.
10.
Schleiermacher—Religion and Experience
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28.
Post-Holocaust Theology
With traditional monotheism holding that God is both omnipotent and benevolent, the problem of "theodicy"—explaining the existence of evil and the suffering of the innocent—has always been problematic. You explore the theological responses to what is perhaps history's most agonizing example.
28.
Post-Holocaust Theology
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11.
Hegel—Religion, Spirit, and History
Learn how the views of Schleiermacher and Kant were challenged by those of G. W. F. Hegel, which stressed our conceptual, not just experiential, knowledge of God and sought to overcome the static rationalism of the Enlightenment. Hegel argued that history was the process by which Absolute Spirit, or God, empties itself in creation and then comes to self-consciousness in humans.
11.
Hegel—Religion, Spirit, and History
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29.
Liberation Theology
Explore how Christian theologians and clergy developed "liberation theology" in response to poverty, colonialism, and an underdeveloped third world. Learn how their work has also influenced feminist and black theologies in Europe and the United States since the 1960s and has influenced a number of different religious traditions.
29.
Liberation Theology
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12.
Theology and the Challenge of History
Some Enlightenment thinkers had questioned whether historical events—such as miracles—could help prove religions; others had begun to study the Bible as a historical document. As historical consciousness achieved dominance in the 19th century, you see how a new set of challenges emerged for religious thinkers.
12.
Theology and the Challenge of History
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30.
Secular and Postmodern Theologies
Increasing secularization has also challenged religious thought in recent decades, as you discover in this bracing look at the work of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and the impact of philosophers such as Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, and Jacques Derrida on the work of contemporary thinkers like Mark C. Taylor and Gianni Vattimo.
30.
Secular and Postmodern Theologies
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13.
19th-Century Christian Modernists
You encounter ways in which the challenges of Enlightenment philosophy and modern historical studies were met by a variety of 19th-century Christian modernists. These include Protestants Horace Bushnell and Albrecht Ritschl, the Anglican Oxford movement, and the Tubingen school of Catholic thought.
13.
19th-Century Christian Modernists
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31.
Postmodernism and Tradition
For many, postmodernism offers a way to recover traditional elements of religion. Explore the ways in which this opportunity has been seized by different thinkers, including philosophers Emmanuel Levinas and Jean-Luc Marion, and theologians who use a "narrative" approach to understand God's revelation as the primary shaping force of life.
31.
Postmodernism and Tradition
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14.
19th-Century Christian Antimodernists
In contrast to liberals and modernists, many Catholic and Protestant thinkers viewed modernity with suspicion. You learn how Catholic antimodernists were successful in increasing papal authority and establishing Aquinas's ideas as foundational, while Protestant resistance took shape in evangelical—especially fundamentalist—ideas.
14.
19th-Century Christian Antimodernists
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32.
Fundamentalism and Islamism
This lecture focuses on two examples of the contemporary resurgence of fundamentalist religion around the world— Christianity in the United States and Islam in the Middle East—exploring the history of each and the way each manifests itself in the modern world.
32.
Fundamentalism and Islamism
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15.
Judaism and Modernity
Step to the other side of the Judeo-Christian tradition to learn how modernity was challenging Jewish thinkers just as it had their Christian contemporaries. And grasp how the distinctiveness of Jewish history—including marginalization and persecution—shaped Jewish thought in different ways, as seen in the 18th-century writings of Moses Mendelssohn and the later work of Herman Cohen.
15.
Judaism and Modernity
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33.
New Atheisms
With the rise of the Christian Right and militant Islam has come a corresponding and vocal rise in various kinds of atheisms, many warning us of the irrationality and violence inherent in religion. You hear two of those voices as you examine the work of Sam Harris and Daniel Dennett.
33.
New Atheisms
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16.
Kierkegaard's Faith
Ultimately as influential as Kant, Schleiermacher, and Hegel, the Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard attacked modern efforts to make Christianity "reasonable." You learn how Kierkegaard instead emphasized that faith is only realized in the passionate commitment of the existing, not just the thinking, person.
16.
Kierkegaard's Faith
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34.
Religion and Rationality
Gain important context for understanding that part of the debate that holds faith irrational by definition by exploring the variety of ways in which philosophers of religion approach this often-divisive relationship between religion and rationality.
34.
Religion and Rationality
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17.
Kierkegaard's Paradox
Continue your introduction to Kierkegaard in his Philosophical Fragments, seeing how he presents faith as a gift from God that, paradoxically, can never be accepted by reason, no matter how diligently reason tries to "grasp" it.
17.
Kierkegaard's Paradox
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35.
Pluralisms—Religious and Secular
Enjoy a look at how some of today's most creative religious thinkers have approached one of their discipline's most provocative questions: How do you incorporate issues like pluralism, diversity, and tolerance when the religions you are studying contain claims of exclusive salvation or of being God's choice?
35.
Pluralisms—Religious and Secular
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18.
19th-Century Suspicion and Feuerbach
You are introduced to the work of Ludwig Feuerbach, one of the major 19th-century critics of Christianity. Unlike Enlightenment critics attacking religion's supposed irrationality, Feuerbach sought to "unmask" the way religion prevents us from grappling with the reality of life.
18.
19th-Century Suspicion and Feuerbach
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36.
Faith, Suspicion, and Modernity
In concluding the course, you address the unavoidable point that the religious life does involve making claims about the nature of reality. Explore what those claims might be and the directions in which reasonable common ground between skepticism and belief might lie.
36.
Faith, Suspicion, and Modernity
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36
Lectures
30
minutes/lecture
1.
The Nature and Origins of Evil
Consider the range of human thought across history, which has sought understanding of evil. First, examine three dominant historical views of the nature of evil. Then, grapple with the key questions of abstract theory versus concrete description, the transcendence or mundaneness of evil, and evil's function in nature and civilization.
1.
The Nature and Origins of Evil
|
19.
The Enlightenment and Its Discontents
The Enlightenment fostered several critical arguments on the problem of evil. Track the debate questioning the limits of reason in dealing with evil between Pierre Bayle and Gottfried Leibniz and later between Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Then follow David Hume's incisive critique of both religious and atheistic thinking.
19.
The Enlightenment and Its Discontents
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2.
Enuma Elish—Evil as Cosmic Battle
In the Enuma Elish, the Babylonian creation myth, see how the dualism of good and bad divine powers locates evil as an innate structure of reality. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, probe one of the earliest recorded attempts to understand suffering and to find meaning in the face of death and evil.
2.
Enuma Elish—Evil as Cosmic Battle
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20.
Kant—Evil at the Root of Human Agency
Kant's extraordinary insights revolutionized Western philosophy. Grapple with key elements of his thought, including his view of all arguments for and against an omnipotent God as essentially indeterminate, morality as located in the human will, and "radical evil" as the tendency of that will to privilege itself above the general good.
20.
Kant—Evil at the Root of Human Agency
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3.
Greece—Tragedy and The Peloponnesian War
This lecture explores contrasting views of evil and suffering in ancient Greece. In Greek tragic drama, trace the cruel paradoxes of fate and responsibility, under divine governance, that afflict the characters. Conversely, uncover the historian Thucydides' linking of evil to "accidents" of circumstance and chance in his account of the Peloponnesian War.
3.
Greece—Tragedy and The Peloponnesian War
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21.
Hegel—The Slaughter Block of History
Hegel was the architect of a global philosophical system encompassing the realities of evil. Study his conception of original sin as a condition of alienation rooted in the human impulse to reflective self-consciousness, and his grand vision of history as the intelligible working out of the problem of evil in time.
21.
Hegel—The Slaughter Block of History
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4.
Greek Philosophy—Human Evil and Malice
The inquiry continues with the seminal views of Plato and Aristotle. Follow Plato's developing views of evil as "miseducation," a political fact of human society and ultimately as metaphysical revolt. Then ponder Aristotle's "mundane" vision of malice and evil as akrasia, weakness of will, and a misordering of fundamental human drives.
4.
Greek Philosophy—Human Evil and Malice
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22.
Marx—Materialism and Evil
What is the relation of human social systems to evil behavior? Explore Marx's legendary analysis of material circumstances as the source of both thought and action, material inequalities as the wellspring of evil, and his determined view that transforming social conditions would erase the motive for human oppression.
22.
Marx—Materialism and Evil
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5.
The Hebrew Bible—Human Rivalry with God
The Hebrew Bible roots evil in various forms of rebellion. In the Hebrew book of Genesis, see how the Fall actualizes an intrinsic potential for evil. Then consider three faces of rebellion: the rejection of God's plan (the Fall), interhuman strife (Cain and Abel), and direct rivalry with God (the Tower of Babel).
5.
The Hebrew Bible—Human Rivalry with God
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23.
The American North and South—Holy War
Two American voices spoke poignantly of the evils of slavery. In Huckleberry Finn, see how Twain portrays the agonizing moral double bind that afflicts Huck in his friendship with the slave Jim. Contemplate Lincoln's distinctly theological interpretation of the Civil War, and his visionary conception of healing for both North and South.
23.
The American North and South—Holy War
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6.
The Hebrew Bible—Wisdom and the Fear of God
The Hebrew Bible also offers a contrasting view of evil and suffering—as phenomena reflecting the mysterious will of God. Explore the implications of the covenant between God and Abraham, and Abraham's mandated sacrifice of Isaac. In the book of Job, see how Job's faith is established through determined acceptance of suffering.
6.
The Hebrew Bible—Wisdom and the Fear of God
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24.
Nietzsche—Considering the Language of Evil
In imagining humanity's future, Nietzsche urged a profound rethinking of morality. Probe his view of the duality of good/evil as a structure that constrains and punishes, his "challenge to truth," and his proposal of a "pragmatic language" focused on the fruitfulness or healthiness of action and the cultivation of human creativity.
24.
Nietzsche—Considering the Language of Evil
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7.
Christian Scripture—Apocalypse and Original Sin
This lecture addresses the New Testament heritage on evil. Uncover the early Christian view of a cosmic struggle between God and darkness in the Gospels and the book of Revelation, noting numerous references to demonic powers. See how the doctrine of original sin is linked to the very goodness of Jesus.
7.
Christian Scripture—Apocalypse and Original Sin
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25.
Dostoevsky—The Demonic in Modernity
Dostoevsky's novels were driven by an obsession with Western intellectual movements that attacked traditional morality. Observe his portrayal of nihilist revolutionaries in Demons, undone by their failure to understand evil in their own nature, and of Raskolnikov in Crime and Punishment, as he rejects moral structure, destroying his own soul.
25.
Dostoevsky—The Demonic in Modernity
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8.
The Inevitability of Evil—Irenaeus
The early Christian theologian Irenaeus of Lyon proposed an important "theodicy" or theory of evil. Discover the tenets of Irenaeus's thinking, based in his view that the descent into sin is necessary for the fulfillment of human destiny. Study his conceptions of natural and moral evil, and the redemptive "tutelage" of suffering.
8.
The Inevitability of Evil—Irenaeus
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26.
Conrad—Incomprehensible Terror
Conrad's writing is perhaps the most profound modern literary representation of evil. In Heart of Darkness, sense the white colonials' corrosive moral rot, revealing a savagery greatly exceeding that of the "primitives" they claim to civilize. In The Secret Agent, witness Conrad's prescient evocation of the desire to destroy civilization itself.
26.
Conrad—Incomprehensible Terror
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9.
Creation, Evil, and the Fall—Augustine
Saint Augustine propounded another seminal "theodicy" of evil. Contemplate his two foundational claims: evil as "privation" of fundamental good, and evil as perversion of human nature toward the meaningless. Consider also his views on the rationale for evil, evil's ultimate mysteriousness, and its interior implications for the doer.
9.
Creation, Evil, and the Fall—Augustine
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27.
Freud—The Death Drive and the Inexplicable
In Freud's psychoanalytic picture of evil, study his notion of the pleasure principle and the roots of pathological behavior in the conflict between human desires and constricting cultural roles. Then follow his later delineation of the "death drive," a core, destructive force of the psyche in eternal struggle with Eros.
27.
Freud—The Death Drive and the Inexplicable
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10.
Rabbinic Judaism—The Evil Impulse
Rabbinic Judaism resists the Christian "cosmic drama" of sin and redemption. Study the rabbinic conceptions of tov (goodness/conscience) and ra (badness/self-interest), as each functions in human nature. Also grasp the notion of ra as a practical challenge of will and responsibility and an ultimate gift from God to mature humanity.
10.
Rabbinic Judaism—The Evil Impulse
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28.
Camus—The Challenge to Take Evil Seriously
Two novels by Camus speak deeply to post-war thinking on the phenomenon of evil. Examine The Plague as an allegory for a society possessed by evil, resistant both to confronting evil and to recognizing its eternal recurrence. Contrast this with Camus' depiction of a "prophet" whose only prophecy is our own fall.
28.
Camus—The Challenge to Take Evil Seriously
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11.
Islam—Iblis the Failed, Once-Glorious Being
Islam locates the origin of evil precisely in the rebellion of Iblis, the fallen angel. First, define the relation of the Qur'an as a sacred text to the Hebrew and Christian Bibles. Then probe Iblis's fall through his "misappropriation" of faith, and the paradoxical dimensions of evil as both personal and impersonal.
11.
Islam—Iblis the Failed, Once-Glorious Being
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29.
Post–WWII Protestant Theology on Evil
Three challenging perspectives: Explore Tillich's conception of the demonic as human "possession" by dimensions of reality beyond the personal self; Barth's vision of Das Nichtige ("the nothing"), a force opposing creation, to which God says "no"; and Niebuhr's "diagnosis" of sin as rooted in the desire to escape our condition as both matter and spirit.
29.
Post–WWII Protestant Theology on Evil
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12.
On Self-Deception in Evil—Scholasticism
The monastic tradition of Christian scholasticism offers compelling views of satanic psychology. In the thought of Anselm of Lyon, explore the "logic" of Satan's rebellion against God, rooted in bottomless, unspecified desire. In Thomas Aquinas, trace the psychology of Satan to a self-deceptive motive to become what God is.
12.
On Self-Deception in Evil—Scholasticism
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30.
Post–WWII Roman Catholic Theology on Evil
In modern Catholicism, grasp theologian Hans Urs von Balthasar's nuanced spirituality of hope, based in the conviction that God's providence is so powerful that salvation is a possibility for all humanity. Then study Pope John Paul II's precise delineation of "objectively" evil actions as a resource in the church's larger public discourse.
30.
Post–WWII Roman Catholic Theology on Evil
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13.
Dante—Hell and the Abandonment of Hope
Dante's Inferno poetically elucidates Christian thinking on evil. In his observation of the damned, see how the literary "Dante" learns the meaning of both pity and piety. Then grasp the nature of Satan's punishment, revealing Hell as a self-made crucible where the damned become what they internally want to be.
13.
Dante—Hell and the Abandonment of Hope
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31.
Post–WWII Jewish Thought on Evil
The Holocaust radically challenged Jewish conceptions of evil, faith, and identity. Grapple with four major Jewish thinkers, confronting the apparent death of the God of the covenant, as they urge profound questioning, new understandings of faith, and a turning to fellow humans to find meaning in healing the world.
31.
Post–WWII Jewish Thought on Evil
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14.
The Reformation—The Power of Evil Within
This lecture investigates the pivotal thought of reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin. In Luther's works, discover his view of Satan as a subtle, inner force, working to induce delusive thought and action. Also study Calvin's core conceptions of moral predestination and the innate depravity or corruptibility of the human spirit.
14.
The Reformation—The Power of Evil Within
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32.
Arendt—The Banality of Evil
Hannah Arendt's writings provide critical insights into modern political evil. Look deeply into the totalitarian mindset and its intent to control and transform human nature. In particular, grasp the singular "moral inversion" underlying the genocidal actions of Nazi bureaucrat Adolf Eichmann, which "justified" history's darkest hour.
32.
Arendt—The Banality of Evil
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15.
Dark Politics—Machiavelli on How to Be Bad
Niccolò Machiavelli's writings are often read as a nihilist sanction for wickedness in government. Push beyond that view to a deeper understanding of his thought, suggesting practical means for dealing with the inevitable "dirty work" of politics, with the determined aim of the stability and good of the polity.
15.
Dark Politics—Machiavelli on How to Be Bad
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33.
Life in Truth—20th-Century Poets on Evil
Three 20th-century poets responded powerfully to political oppression. Hear Paul Celan's evocation of the annihilation of meaning, continuity, and time itself in the death camps. Follow this with Czeslaw Milosz's searching words on the legacy of past suffering, and Zbigniew Herbert's vision of the power of art and beauty in opposing totalitarianism.
33.
Life in Truth—20th-Century Poets on Evil
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16.
Hobbes—Evil as a Social Construct
Hobbes, considered the first modern Western philosopher, proposed a hugely influential understanding of good and evil. Study his conception of innate human savagery, amoralism, and self-interest in the "state of nature," and his theory of compensating social contracts, suggesting that moral distinctions themselves are invented constructs of language.
16.
Hobbes—Evil as a Social Construct
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34.
Science and the Empirical Study of Evil
Contemporary psychologists have attempted to measure human tendencies toward what we may call "evil" behavior. Examine three landmark experiments studying obedience to authority and willingness to participate in cruel acts, and review the troubling evidence suggesting that human actions are driven much more by context or situation than by innate "character."
34.
Science and the Empirical Study of Evil
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17.
Montaigne and Pascal—Evil and the Self
Philosophers Montaigne and Pascal offered sharply contrasting, "interior" accounts of sin. Evaluate Montaigne's view of zealous extremism as rooted in pathologic denial of the "disorderliness" of human nature, against Pascal's contention that that very nature requires spiritual zealotry to counteract and heal it.
17.
Montaigne and Pascal—Evil and the Self
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35.
The "Unnaming" of Evil
This lecture proposes serious reflections on humanity's current capacities to respond to evil. Grapple with highly relevant issues, including the question of whether our past resources of understanding are equal to current challenges, a possible template for anticipating genocide, and our tendency to "serially" forget the lessons of the past.
35.
The "Unnaming" of Evil
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18.
Milton—Epic Evil
Milton's Paradise Lost is another deeply influential literary meditation on evil. Here, travel deeply into the psychic agony of Satan, in Milton's complex portrait of temptation, choice, rebellion, and futility. Conclude with reflections on the distinction between satanic and human sin, and the Fall's significance in God's plan.
18.
Milton—Epic Evil
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36.
Where Can Hope Be Found?
Professor Mathewes reviews the many themes and "layers" of thinking that articulate humanity's struggle with evil. Conclude with thoughts on what a workable present stance may be, balancing the intractable challenge that evil presents with the affirmative sense of the world revealed in our resilient will to face it.
36.
Where Can Hope Be Found?
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